Children’s perceptions of the parenting styles of their families living in informal human settlements

Resumen

El presente artículo tiene como fin analizar las percepciones de los niños y las niñas sobre los estilos parentales de sus familias que viven en los asentamientos humanos informales Los Cacaos y Nuevo Amanecer, jurisdicción de Barbosa, Antioquia. El estudio se definió desde el enfoque cualitativo a partir del paradigma interpretativo que buscó acercarse a los sujetos para comprenderlos desde sus propios marcos de referencia. Como técnicas de investigación se utilizó el grupo de discusión, el taller y la entrevista estructurada. La investigación destaca que los escenarios violentos y socialmente vulnerables pueden afectar negativamente el desarrollo emocional, físico y cognitivo de los niños y niñas, y que el respeto, el afecto y la comunicación asertiva son fundamentales para fortalecer sus vínculos familiares, ya que servirán como recursos para enfrentar situaciones de riesgo. En conclusión, los estilos parentales afectuosos y de aceptación, como es el caso de los democráticos, promueven la interiorización de normas en escenarios de vulnerabilidad a partir del reconocimiento y la valoración de las opiniones y percepciones de los hijos e hijas referente a las relaciones familiares.

Palabras clave: asentamientos humanos informales, infancia, estilos parentales, familia, infancia.

Abstract

The purpose of this article is to analyze the perceptions of children about the parental styles of their families living in the informal human settlements Los Cacaos and Nuevo Amanecer, jurisdiction of Barbosa, Antioquia. The study was defined from the qualitative approach based on the interpretative paradigm that sought to approach the subjects in order to understand them from their own frames of reference. The research techniques used were the discussion group, the workshop and the structured interview. The research highlights that violent and socially vulnerable scenarios can negatively affect the emotional, physical and cognitive development of children, and that respect, affection and assertive communication are fundamental to strengthen their family bonds, as they will serve as resources to face risk situations. In conclusion, affectionate and accepting parenting styles, as is the case of democratic parenting, promote the internalization of norms in scenarios of vulnerability based on the recognition and valuation of the opinions and perceptions of the children regarding family relationships.

Keywords: informal human settlements, childhood, parental styles, family, childhood.

Resumo

O objetivo deste artigo é analisar as percepções das crianças sobre os estilos parentais de suas famílias que vivem nos assentamentos humanos informais Los Cacaos e Nuevo Amanecer, na jurisdição de Barbosa, Antioquia. O estudo foi definido a partir de uma abordagem qualitativa baseada no paradigma interpretativo que buscou abordar os sujeitos para entendê-los a partir de seus próprios quadros de referência. As técnicas de pesquisa utilizadas foram discussões em grupos focais, workshops e entrevistas estruturadas. A pesquisa destaca que cenários violentos e socialmente vulneráveis podem afetar negativamente o desenvolvimento emocional, físico e cognitivo das crianças, e que o respeito, o afeto e a comunicação assertiva são fundamentais para fortalecer seus vínculos familiares, pois servirão como recursos para enfrentar situações de risco. Concluindo, os estilos parentais afetuosos e acolhedores, como é o caso da parentalidade democrática, promovem a internalização de normas em cenários de vulnerabilidade com base no reconhecimento e na valorização das opiniões e percepções das crianças sobre as relações familiares.

Palavras-chave: assentamentos humanos informais, crianças, estilos parentais, família, infância.

DOI del artículo: https://doi.org/10.26620/uniminuto.inclusion.11.3.2024.18-30

Background

Studies on parenting styles in families living in informal settlements are important because they enable analysis in terms of the comprehensive development and rights of the children who live there. To this end, several studies conducted in Latin America on the subject were reviewed.

Gavancho and Guzmán (2021) argue that the family is the social space that should provide psychological balance to individuals, which will positively or negatively influence their cognitive development. Therefore, the parenting style developed in families should lean more toward equitable actions that lead to harmony among its members. However, if it is necessary to exercise authority in a specific situation, it should be done, but there cannot be a single parenting style for all situations. This requires parents or significant others to have a more understanding attitude through which violent actions that could affect the social development of the child in the future are avoided.

For his part, Valdiviezo (2020) set out to determine the relationship between family functioning and communication in informal human settlements. The author concluded that there is no significant relationship between these two variables, meaning that families remain connected and the process of adaptability is flexible in the face of problematic communication situations.

In general, the most common family structure in these contexts of social vulnerability is the nuclear family, precisely the one that reports the highest levels of favorable communication and family relationships, according to Garcés and Palacio (2010). At the same time, regardless of the type of family, the authors argue that it is the mother who most often develops an affectionate and close relationship with her children, even though there is a significant group of fathers who have managed to build bonds of trust with them. However, they identified factors that influence communication and relationships among members of the families studied, such as parental separation, psychological and physical abuse, economic crisis, and psychoactive substance use. In addition, families sometimes use violent language with their children, which makes it difficult to establish dialogue and trust. It was also observed that mothers are more likely to resort to verbal abuse, while cases of physical abuse were mostly attributed to fathers.

Therefore, effective family communication depends on adapting communication models, which will influence family functionality. This is reflected in the ability of family members to express their feelings and achieve family goals, both individual and group. In healthy families, communication tends to be open and direct, which facilitates the unreserved expression of positive and negative emotions (Chávez, 2022), a situation that is intensified by context and workload. In the case of informal human settlements, household maintenance is perceived primarily as a female task. Even when women are employed, they have a heavier workload and more responsibility, simply because men have not understood the importance of teamwork: they see them as a figure of weakness (Ossul-Vermehren, 2021).

The need for access to land among populations living in socially vulnerable environments has become a major problem with significant social and economic consequences in Bogotá, the capital of Colombia, particularly between 2004 and 2016 (Cuéllar, 2018). This need has led to the proliferation of informal human settlements that lack public services and infrastructure, among others. In recent years, there has been a massive displacement of people, which has triggered problems for the state (Turriago et al., 2020), leading to the “compromise of a series of rights recognized by convention and constitution for all persons, including the right to housing, recognized for Colombians and its possible extension to foreign migrants and refugees living in substandard settlements”

(p. 58). In this context, the exercise of parenting styles becomes more complex and can be considered to have a negative impact on the quality of life of children living in informal human settlements.

The concept of parenting style has been associated with several terms and expressions, namely: parenting styles, parenting guidelines or patterns, parenting styles, socialization styles, and parenting models (Izzedin Bouquet and Pachaoja Londoño, 2009). These are influenced by factors such as the number of children, gender, age, health status, physical appearance, and the cultural and religious connotations of the family. In other words, parenting styles are understood in terms of two aspects: “the control or demands of parents towards their children, affection and communication, on the one hand, and the level of response or acceptance of parents towards the needs of children” (Baumrind, 1996, cited in Simaes et al., 2019, p. 220).

Four parenting styles can be distinguished: democratic, characterized by acceptance of individuals’ needs and proportionate control; authoritarian, in which there is acceptance, but control is restrictive and can even be described as pathological; permissive or neglectful, in which there is acceptance and extreme autonomy; and rejecting, in which there is no acceptance and control tends to be pathological (Richaud de Minzi, 2005, cited in Simaes et al., 2019, p. 220). Thus, parenting styles are defined as a set of knowledge, attitudes, and beliefs that parents have regarding the care of their children in both the family and social spheres, including feeding, care, and affection, among others (Jorge and González, 2017).

Parenting patterns refer to the “customs, traditions, and cultural heritage that are passed down from one generation to the next” (Ramos and Henao, 2022, p. 26). They are associated with the standards that parents demand of their children in terms of behavior, given that they have an impact on social spheres (Jorge and González, 2017). Parenting, defined as a process, is not universally carried out in the same way and changes over time. It is nuanced and linked to the personality, habits, cultural context, and even the emotional and affective history of the parents (Rafael and Castañeda, 2021).

Richaud et al. (2013) found that the quality of parenting is relevant to social and emotional adjustment in childhood, since emotional development, which depends on the bond with primary caregivers, is the basis for acquiring future skills that will help children cope with conflicts and interact with their environment. Therefore, parents living in socially vulnerable conditions are highly likely to face a series of difficulties, both economic and emotional, that affect their parenting skills. These difficulties include low levels of education, low job qualifications, isolation, physical and psychological illnesses, violence, among others (Richaud et al., 2013). The authors argue that “these factors may act independently of each other, but they are more likely to interact, producing an effect on parents’ parenting styles and on the outcomes obtained by their children” (p. 422).

Until the 1960s, it was believed that a person’s intelligence, behavior, and development depended primarily on heredity. However, studies in the human sciences have challenged this paradigm by demonstrating the influence of the environment and certain parenting patterns on learning. Parenting patterns within the family are relevant and can make a difference in facilitating or hindering the development of children (Tuesta, 2019).

Since childhood, the subject has been involved in the transgenerational transmission of childhood traumas. These events have marked crucial stages in the subject’s life cycle (Rubio, 2021). Hence, it is important to highlight that the family has a vital responsibility in the integral development of the human being: its role is relevant in the educational process of childhood (Rubio et al., 2021). Social factors such as poverty affect parenting practices, so job loss, mistrust in neighborhood and community networks, and a decline in quality of life have a negative impact on them (Ramos and Henao, 2022). This makes it difficult to build strong emotional bonds and fair, equitable, and democratic interpersonal relationships, which are fundamental aspects in the development of cultural capital that enables people to cope more effectively with adverse socioeconomic conditions.

That said, it is essential to approach these scenarios of social vulnerability in order to analyze children’s perceptions of the parenting styles of their families living in informal settlements, as these have physical and psychological effects on their overall development, which is linked to their emotional, social, and cognitive well-being. Listening to and reading children will allow us to expand our relational knowledge of parenting styles in order to explore creative ways to support families and promote more favorable environments for child development.

Methodology

This research is defined from a qualitative approach, which, according to Galeano (2004), “aims to rescue the inner world of social actors in their relationships with the context and with other social actors” (p. 23). In this sense, it allows us to distinguish the beliefs, values, experiences, and meanings given by the study participants. From the interpretive paradigm, we sought to approach the subjects in order to understand them within their own frames of reference, since the interpretive approach leads to an understanding of the social realities that are occurring at the moment, which take into account the context and preserve the uniqueness of the events (Sandoval, 2002).

In terms of techniques, a focus group was held with the participation of 25 children. A set of questions on the topic of parenting styles was used to encourage free expression through conversation, accompanied by a research professional (Novella et al., 2021). The other technique used was a workshop called “Painting my family,” aimed at 35 children, which was guided through a dialogic interview. This resulted in the creation of a mural as a place to display the works and experiences that showed the role played by families in terms of parenting styles. Finally, a structured interview was conducted with 15 families, the common thread of which was a script of questions that allowed for descriptions of how these people perceive the world (Kvale, 2012).

The sampling method was intentional non-probabilistic or convenience sampling, which “consists of selecting, using non-random methods, a sample whose characteristics are similar to those of the target population. It may also be that the researcher directly and intentionally selects individuals from the population” (Arias-Gómez et al., 2016, p. 206). For the purposes of this research, the population studied was children—aged between 7 and 11—and their families living in the informal settlements of Los Cacaos and Nuevo Amanecer, in the jurisdiction of Barbosa, Antioquia.

The analysis of the information was constructed using a multi-category matrix that considered two moments: an intratextual analysis to identify particular and relevant aspects of each of the stories from the discussion groups, the workshop, and the interviews; and an intertextual analysis based on matrices established by categories and subcategories, according to the research objectives, in which similar and differentiated narratives were articulated.

With regard to ethical considerations, all necessary measures were taken to protect the rights of the children. To this end, an informed consent form was drawn up to enable parents to understand the objectives of the research, as well as the risks and benefits it could have for their children and themselves. The research was approved by the Ethics and Scientific Integrity Committee of UNIMINUTO, Bello campus.

Results

A total of 15 families participated, with 48 sons and daughters. On average, each woman had 3.7 children, a figure well above the average number of children in Colombia, since, according to DANE (2021), “in 1993, the country had a national fertility rate of 3.36 children per woman; by the 2005 census, fertility had fallen to 2.33, and in 2018 it was 1.95, showing a significant reduction in recent decades” (p. 16). Similarly, the National Quality of Life Survey highlighted that, two decades ago, the average household in Colombia was composed of 3.9 people, a figure that fell to 2.9 in 2022 (DANE, 2023). Three types of family structures were identified: nuclear, representing 66.7% of the study participants; extended, corresponding to 20%; and single-parent, representing 13.3%.

Below are some drawings made by the 35 children who participated in the research, belonging to the informal settlements of Los Cacaos and Nuevo Amanecer. In them, they portray the people who make up their families.

Figure 1. Nuclear family (2024)

Fuente: Source: Workshop “Painting my family”.

Figure 1 shows the members of the nuclear family, consisting of a father, mother, and their children. This plays a fundamental role in the development and socialization of individuals from childhood, as it provides a stable and secure environment. According to Garcés and Palacio (2010), the most common family structure in informal human settlements is the nuclear family, which reports a higher presence of favorable levels of communication and family relationships. However, within the narratives of the children in the study, there is evidence of physical and psychological punishment originating from this type of family group, which will be discussed later.

Figure 2. Extended family (2024)

Fuente: Source: Workshop “Painting my family”.

Figure 2 shows the members of the extended family. One of its characteristics is to provide additional emotional and financial support, but it can also face challenges in terms of space and decision-making within the home and, in some cases, with regard to children. It is important to note that when we refer to the extended family, we are referring to its composition, not its size.

Figure 3. Single-parent family (2024)

Fuente: Source: Workshop “Painting my family”.

Figure 3 shows the members of a single-parent family headed by the mother, who is caring for her children. This family structure has become increasingly common in recent decades due to various factors, such as the rise in divorce rates and single mothers raising children, among others, social and economic aspects. These data correspond to the findings of the National Quality of Life Survey (ECV) conducted by the National Statistics Department (DANE) in 2023, which shows an increase in female heads of household in Colombia. They represent 45.4% of the total, meaning that approximately 8.1 million households in Colombia are headed by women. Single-parent families may face particular challenges, such as an overload of responsibilities and a possible shortage of economic resources, which could influence parenting patterns.

Discussion

The parent-child relationship is undoubtedly a determining factor in the overall development of human beings, especially in contexts of social vulnerability. If parenting styles are based on physical and psychological punishment, they can have socio-emotional consequences and cause cognitive, physical, emotional, and behavioral problems.

Informal human settlements are often unsafe places due to the risks to which children are exposed. Parents therefore need to develop parenting styles based on respect and effective communication channels that promote dialogue with their children on issues of personal self-care, namely knowledge of their bodies and information related to different acts of physical and psychological abuse, among others.

The children participating in the research are exposed to violent situations both within the family—regardless of its composition—and in their social environment. The proliferation of hostile places for children overshadows their hopes and dreams and can have an impact on their overall development and resilience. It is the duty of parents to convey a sense of security to their children, as well as the ability to acquire autonomy; to ensure that they are treated humanely; and to foster in them the ability to face the difficulties they may encounter in life, as social vulnerability contexts are determined by a combination of factors, including limited economic, social, emotional, and cognitive resources, as well as experiences of threat, violence, abuse, and neglect during childhood. Therefore, the socio-cognitive development of children is determined by the quality of interactions in their environment (Simaes et al., 2019, pp. 221-225).

In the relationships that develop within families and in the social context of the two informal settlements studied, conflicts, arguments, and acts of violence, both within families and in the community—arising from street vending and the use of psychoactive substances—have a significant impact on parenting styles. They are likely to trigger feelings of sadness and fear in children, which could lead to emotional states of despair and distress that cause them physical and psychological insecurity. Below are some accounts of this:

I feel bad. And then my little sister starts hugging me because I defend her. I already have my mom who also leaves marks on us and hits us hard (Focus group 1, personal communication, March 2, 2024).

Some boys came down to my house with a machete to kill a man (Focus group 2, personal communication, March 2, 2024).

I stay at home, so they don't kill me (Discussion group 2, personal communication, March 2, 2024).

Based on the above, it is important to establish a parenting style based on trust, communication, and respect, as this facilitates children’s adaptability to adverse situations in contexts of social vulnerability, that is, it allows them to emotionally manage psychosocial risks.

For Kaztman (2011, cited in Ceballos Ramos, 2018), the level of violence on the streets defines the scope of opportunities available to children to learn to live together in diversity and build social capital. That is why listening to the voices of children is essential, as it is in this environment that they carry out their process of identity formation, socialization, and development of everyday life. This is the starting point for carrying out actions that contribute to their social integration and recognition as subjects of rights, which is fundamental for their participation in the “formation of policies, programs, and projects” (Vejar, 2022).

Based on their perception of physical punishment mainly administered by parents or grandparents, it can be inferred that families tend to have an authoritarian parenting style: control is restrictive and can even be described as pathological (Richaud de Minzi, 2005, cited in Simaes et al., 2019, p. 220). Here are some accounts from children:

I’d rather be scolded than hit, because hitting hurts a lot. It leaves marks, so I’d rather be punished by having my cell phone taken away or not being allowed to go out (Focus group 1, personal communication, March 2, 2024).

Don’t hit me because my dad has a very heavy hand, and don’t take away my cell phone either (Focus group 1, personal communication, March 2, 2024).

They should treat their children well, not hit them for silly things, and educate them well because that’s the best thing (Discussion group 2, personal communication, March 2, 2024).

The above highlights the fact that acts of abuse have been reported by children in the informal settlements of Los Cacaos and Nuevo Amanecer, while there are few reports of this situation within their families. Cuervo Martínez (2010) mentions that affective parenting can represent negative experiences. Emotions and memories from the past play a decisive role in how parents raise their children; this means that if parents were raised in an authoritarian environment, they are very likely to apply this approach to their own children. In contrast, it is evident that boys and girls think differently about the experience of building a family:

I want to be a mother and have a daughter, and I would love her with all my heart (Focus group 2, personal communication, March 2, 2024).

This story shows the desire and determination to break with the cycle of abuse in the family environment: the parenting style tends to be loving and respectful. Therefore, one of the aspects to be addressed in children living in informal settlements is their being, their soul, because it enables them to imagine a different reality driven by the desire to challenge the context of vulnerability in which they live. That said, the possibility of dreaming not only of different family relationships, but also of personal projects, gives them the hope of envisioning a promising future for their lives:

My dream is to be a doctor (Discussion group 1, personal communication, March 2, 2024).

I want to be a police officer to catch the bad guys and those who steal from us (Discussion group 1, personal communication, March 2, 2024).

My dream is to be a soccer player. I want to be a goalkeeper for Medellín (Discussion group 2, personal communication, March 2, 2024).

I want to join the Navy. I like the sea, and they don’t kill people there (Focus group 2, personal communication, March 2, 2024).

The challenge is for parents to understand these desires not as mere words expressed in an emotional moment, but as an anchor for the comprehensive development of their children. In this sense, it is important to support their perceptions and desires with an understanding and realistic attitude in order to promote the achievement of their life goals. Positive parenting practices enable good cognitive development in children, which favors their interaction with the world (Prats et al., 2018).

The children’s accounts also reveal their desires regarding the emotional states they would like to see in their family members. Despite the context of social vulnerability, these desires are internalized as a determining factor in shaping parenting styles in terms of emotions. Therefore, close and affectionate relationships are consolidated as a desire that touches the soul of childhood. Some of them say:

I want my mom to have peace, to be very happy... and sometimes I see her sad. I think she’s hardly happy anymore (Discussion group 1, personal communication, March 2, 2024).

What would I like? For my mom to be happy. She is very sad because her mother died when she was 3 years old. She was left all alone (Discussion group 1, personal communication, March 2, 2024).

I want my mom to be happy because when she plays music, she starts crying (Focus group 1, personal communication, March 2, 2024).

It is interesting to note that, although the children’s accounts reveal acts of abuse by their parents, they express concern for their parents’ emotional well-being, which may be related to parental competence. According to Portillo et al. (2021), this competence is conceived as the ability of parents to adaptively cope with their own responsibilities, ensuring the well-being and development of their children.

Based on the above, it is important to analyze how the parenting process can be improved in order to contribute, above all, to the physical, psychological, and emotional well-being of children in socially vulnerable contexts.

Conclusions

This research has determined that parenting styles in families must consider multiple aspects of human beings, from the personal to the emotional. In the latter case, parents or significant others and the social environment must act as protective agents for the comprehensive development of children to internalize parenting styles based on respect, appreciation, and recognition of children’s perceptions.

Analysis of the accounts shows the need for minors to live in a safe and loving environment, both within the family and in society, which should be promoted through a loving parenting style, which could be related to a democratic style, in which the opinions of family members are valued and recognized to adjust.

The research highlights that violent and hostile environments can negatively affect children’s emotional, physical, and cognitive development. Meanwhile, respect, affection, and assertive communication are essential for strengthening family bonds and helping children cope with risky situations. In short, parents or caregivers have a responsibility to convey security and foster their children’s autonomy and resilience, ensuring that they receive adequate human treatment to cope with life’s difficulties. They play the role of educating not only with authority, but also with love.

Acknowledgements

Special thanks to the children living with their families in the informal settlements of Los Cacaos and Nuevo Amanecer for their willingness to participate in the research. We would also like to thank the Dios de Amor Church in the municipality of Girardota, Antioquia, for its contributions to the research and for acting as a bridge that led us to the population participating in the study.

The article is the result of the research project “Psychosocial risks of parenting styles in the comprehensive development of children from families living in informal settlements,” carried out in 2023 as part of the Social Work program at the Corporación Universitaria Minuto de Dios (UNIMINUTO).

The Ethics and Scientific Integrity Committee of UNIMINUTO, Bello campus, issued ethical endorsement to carry out the study.

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Derechos

Artículo de investigación / Research Article / Artigo de pesquisa